Observation of Elementary School Room

I did my observation at Bullskin Township Elementary School on Mrs. Coles 2nd grade classroom. When I first entered the classroom, I felt very welcomed, she had all the students stand up and introduce themselves. It was a very colorful classroom covered with the children’s art work. The children seemed to feel very comfortable around each other; they all appeared to be communicating well. The goals of the children in the class room are to actively participate and understand the information taught. As I observed part of her math class, they were learning money.She gave them a worksheet to work on after she taught the lesson. As they were completing the worksheet she walked around to answer any questions and to make sure they were on task. I asked Mrs. Coles how she went about communicating with her students families and she said she uses phone calls, email, and parents will sometimes send a note if he/she has any concerns. She gave me advice to always call from work and to neve r call from home. She said last year she had a bad experience where she used her house phone to call a parent, and after that the parent was constantly calling her house.Her curriculum was based on the Pennsylvania Standards. She showed me a PA Scott Foresman Reading Street Grade 2 Unit 3 book, which was made from the PA Standards it gives you a weekly plan, and different activities to do Monday-Friday. A few of the activities included target skills of the week, like phonics, comprehension skills, and comprehension strategies. She had one autistic boy, whom required one on one time, so she had an aide in her classroom helping him, so he wasn’t isolated from the rest of the second grade students.I also asked her how she went about assessing her students, and she said she couldn’t assess them on the oral skills, but she did test them of comprehension, hand writing, and she used the company book test for each student. I thought the class room was set up nicely. The studen ts’ desks were facing the chalkboard, Mrs. Coles desk was placed behind the students, their cubby’s’ were as soon as you walked into the classroom to the left, and they had a restroom and computer area toward the back of the room.All of the materials were placed where the children could reach them, they had more than enough books and materials for each student, and the class room was well organized. The ultimate goal of the students is to be prepared for the 3rd grade, because in the 3rd grade they are now required to take the PSSA’s. So four times a week they have what’s called â€Å"intervention† where they divide the entire 2nd grade into groups high, middle, high-low, and low-low. From there the teachers help them get the children ready for the PSSA’s.They are required to do a bullying lesson every other Friday; it’s a whole school district wide program. It was called â€Å"Olweus Bullying Prevention Program† Mrs. Co les put the class in a big circle on the floor and she sat on the floor also and read them a story. The class became a little wild, so she said if they calmed down they could each bring in a healthy snack on Wednesday. The autistic student caused some distractions, refused to listen to the story and covered his ears, the aide removed him from the room.

Death penalty †capital punishment

  Death penalty has begun a long time ago, perhaps since Eighteenth Century B.C.   And a hundred or maybe even thousand numbers of murderers and criminals have been sentenced of it.   But the question still remains and is always debatable whether it is just right to have death penalty or not.I may not be directly affected by this capital punishment. But at the back of my mind, I also ask why there must be death penalty or not.   And as I balanced my views and ideas about this, the thought that there should no death penalty weighs more.Now, let’s take a look on the history of death penalty. This punishment has long been practiced since the times of King Hammurabi of Babylon for 25 different crimes. Death penalty was also made as the only punishment for all crimes according to Draconian Code of Athens, Hittite Code and Roman Law of Twelve Tablets.   The punishment of death is carried through drowning, hanging, burning alive, crucifixion, beating to death, and beheading .   And take note of the crimes they considered punishable by death penalty: not confessing to a crime, treason, cutting down and tree and stealing. (Death Penalty Information Center, 2007)America was then influenced by Britain during the colonial period.   And the offenses punishable of death includes stealing grapes, killing chickens, denying the â€Å"true God† or striking one’s parents.Seeing that these are only minor offenses if taken into considerations, abolitionist movements were formed. Some became successful of abolishing the death penalty like in Austria and Pennsylvania except for murder and treason. However, it progress again in Twentieth Century and five out of six abolitionist countries reinstated their death penalty as the America enters World War I.   The good thing is that the number of executions decreased as other nations agreed that the death penalty be limited if not abolished.So even at that time, there are movements of abolishing death pen alty.   Although at some point, others see it as a necessary social measure. Still, as many others do so, I don’t agree of this capital punishment. As I believe that no one has the right to take one’s life for whatever reason.Others argue that death penalty deters crime. But is practicing it not another crime where you also kill a human?   And as always, two wrongs will never make a right thing.For the past years, hundred numbers of prisoners were found to be innocent and released from the death row.   Imagine how they would face the society again.   They may perhaps be damaged inside, having to fear death, disbelieving the justice and all.   And then there were people who have received the death penalty and in the end were found not guilty.   The deathly penalty is really a cruel punishment and yet was not taken carefully by those in authority.   How can one accept it then?I also believe that one can still change.   One can still start a new life. One can have a new life with his family.   And death penalty deprived them this chance.The time they would spend inside the prison would at least let them think about their offenses and realized their mistakes. Sentencing them to death would just make their life easier.   But if they will stay in jail, they would suffer the consequences of their wrongdoings and realize how much prettier life is outside if they didn’t commit the crime.Now this is my opinion.   And this topic of death has always been debatable for the past centuries.   It is then up to you whether you would agree with me or not.   But maybe we should always look at the facts and not merely standing out with our immediate ideas not only about this capital punishment but with all other issues. Be critical.References: College Net Forum. (2007). Retrieved August 26, 2007, from College Net:http://www.collegenet.com/elect/app/app?service=external/Forum&sp=1882Death Penalty Information Center. (2007). Retrieved August 26, 2007, from Death PenaltyInformation Center: http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=15&did=410#IntroductionoftheDeathPenalty

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 319

Assignment Example The location of Parkville avoids it from direct sun’s overhead. d. [10 pts] On the back of this sheet, draw a diagram showing the titled Earth during the winter solstice.Mark the Equator, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, and Parkville which is at 39Â °N latitude; then add the sun’s incoming parallel rays. Show where on Earth the sun reaches zenith during the winter solstice. 3. [30 pts] In the table below, fill in the altitude (i.e. the angle above the horizon) of the sun when it crossed the meridian (maximum altitude, around noon) for the different times of the year. (An altitude of 0Â ° means on the horizon. An altitude of 90Â ° means straight overhead, i.e. at zenith. Altitudes 90Â ° are not possible.) Use a value of 23.5Â ° for the axial tilt of the Earth. 1. [20 pts] In the table below, fill in the approximate time when the different moon phases are seen at the various locations. Choose from the following four answer choices: 12 PM (noon), 6PM (sunset), 12AM (midnight), 6 AM (sunrise). (Hint: Check out Figure 3.2 of your textbook.) f. [15 pts] After living on the moon a few months, the Sun, Earth, and Moon are in alignment for what Earthlings call a lunar eclipse. When you look up at the Earth, what do you see? On the back, draw a diagram of this alignment. g. [15 pts] several more months later, the Sun, Earth, and Moon are in alignment for what Earthlings call a solar eclipse. When you look up at the Earth, what do you see? On the back, draw a diagram of this

Behaviour therapy is an effective but not sufficient factor in CBT Essay

Behaviour therapy is an effective but not sufficient factor in CBT - Essay Example Some instances of such models can be cited as theories of normal and abnormal development, and theories of emotion and psychopathology. In fact Fenton (2007) gives out a very understandable description of the entire concept of CBT by breaking it into member components of cognitive and behavioural therapies as follows," Quite simply, cognitive-behavioral therapy or CBT is a combination of two kinds of therapy: cognitive and behavioral. In behavioral therapy, people learn how to change behavior. You may have already heard of the most common behavioral techniques used in the treatment of anxiety disorders: desensitization, relaxation and breathing exercises. Cognitive therapy focuses on thoughts, assumptions and beliefs. With cognitive therapy, people may learn to recognize and change faulty or maladaptive thinking patterns. Cognitive therapy is not about "positive thinking" in the sense that you must always think happy thoughts. It's a way to gain control over racing, repetitive though ts which often feed or trigger anxiety. The two therapies often are used together because they are beneficial to each other. For example, in the midst of extreme anxiety, it may feel impossible to gain control over your thoughts and apply cognitive therapy techniques. Therefore, a behavioral technique such as deep breathing may help you calm down and focus on your thinking". It is the latter argument of Fenton which is the focus of this paper. This paper essentially looks into exploring the argument that behaviour therapy is an effective approach with in the CBT but it is not the only and sufficient approach. The paper looks into the concepts of cognitive and behaviour therapies in depth and the possible and more effective applications of the CBT,when the two are combined. The paper also discusses some other approaches which are finding application under the umbrella of the CBT.Cognitive Concepts and Therapy The initial questions that arise in cognitive approach are conceptual. They relate to what are the various levels of cognition that is accorded importance in literature. In the 1960's, Aaron Beck, developed his approach called Cognitive Therapy. Beck's cognitive therapy was particularly found very useful in the effective treatment of depression and related symptoms. Beck and his associates reckon three identifiable levels of cognition that are pertinent as treatment milestones as cognitive approaches are applied to within the overall approach of f CBT.These three levels of cognition are : full consciousness, automatic thoughts, and schemas (Clark et al,1999). Within these three levels the highest level is consciousness and it is defined to include the mental state in which rational decisions are made with full awareness of the decision maker. Decision maker is rationally opting to choose the way he finally did and he has rational arguments to justify his acts.

Education Vision Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Education Vision - Essay Example As a scientific approach to school education, reformers always suggest that new techniques be implemented for the comprehensive development of their studenthood so as to enable them to focus more on their personal abilities to react to real-time situational demands than retain the enormous amount of knowledge they claim from books and classroom lectures. In my belief, education and learning are two different concepts; while the former requires structural administration of external factors to the intellect of an individual, the latter refers to a set of models of behavior and thoughts one processes and retains for reference of future actions from the experience of circumstances and exercise of strategic thinking based on timely requirements. I would like my school to focus more on the practice of intellectual requirements than the exploration of theories. The model for my school should be totally practice based and the one that gives every student opportunity to find his insider out. A schooling method for this purpose requires the co-ordination of the thoughts of parents and teachers. Conservative teaching techniques has been outdated since the introduction of computer-based learning; therefore, schools must implement systems for empirical learning based on individual attention whereby each student gets the benefit of opportunities to excel his field of enthusiasm. A number of characteristics like empathy, respect for the students, flexibility, self-care, patience, sense of humor, collegiality, and high energy level are expected to be met by the teachers to be successful in forming a part of the urban curriculum design. These qualities of the teachers can be utilized only if the student behavior is favorable to the conditions of the urban school. Parents are expected to identify the inherent abilities of their children and guide them the real way of their eventual success. They must be largely communicative and friendly with them.

The History of Nursing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The History of Nursing - Research Paper Example In earliest times, nursing was associated with motherly care of infants and was termed as wet nurse. By the 16th century the meaning of nursing meant to attend and care for the sick. (Donahue, pp.4,6) Early myth and beliefs In early times it was believed that nurses required no formal education or training. They were unlicensed doctors, abortionists, midwives and counselors in the western history. For centuries, the nurses passed on their experiences to their neighbors or daughters. They were termed as â€Å"wise women† by the people. One early myth was that women were so trapped by their menstruation and reproduction cycles that they were not independent outside their homes. Another myth was that male professionals had superior technology. These myths were false since women were inherently healers for the poor. It was also found that male professionals depended more on ritualistic practices while women represented more humane approach to healing. (â€Å"Witches, Midwives, an d Nurses:A History of Women Healers†) Early sickness and disease and that change nursing care In early ages medicine and nursing were considered as one. In those times as medicine men developed, they were always associated with an inferior class of practitioners who applied the treatment, judged the quality of drugs and also dressed wounds. These were women nurses who carried practical knowledge of healing. Nurses were those women who received orders from the medicine men to treat patients. (â€Å"A History of Nursing:The Evolution of Nursing Systems from the earliest times†). In the middle ages nursing became important in religious life. The spread of plagues in various times gave rise to demand of nursing. Such women were called â€Å"sisters†. (â€Å"Nursing:Yesterday & Today†) Evolution of Nursing Nurses and Hospitals In Early ages hospitals were built in the heart of cities to serve the poor and isolate patients of contagious diseases like cholera and typhus. Hospitals had poor sanitary system and as a result infections led to high mortality rates among patients. With the development of skilled nursing care along with effective sterilization techniques, hospitals managed to reduce the mortality rate in the last nineteenth century. (Parker, Kreimer & Munasinghe, p.177) Women that Influenced Nursing Jensey Snow was an African American nurse who opened a hospital in Petersburg Virginia in 1820. She provided health care services to the community for the next thirty years (â€Å"History of African American Nurses†). Dorothea Dix was born in the town of Hampden in Maine. She was a teacher. She was also a reformer who brought many changes in the treatment of the mentally ill in the United States. By the age of 54 she inspected many institutions both in the US and in Europe for mistreatments (â€Å"Dorothea Dix†). Clara Burton was an American nurse born in Massachusetts in 1821. From young age, she helped the wounded who n eeded medical care. In 1862, she distributed supplied to the wounded soldiers of Battle of Bull Run. She even used to be present behind the lines during battles and for that reason she was known as â€Å"Angel of the Battefield†. She also founded the American Red Cross (â€Å"Spotlight on Clara Burton, Famous Nurse & American Red Cross Founder†). Lilian Wald who was born in 1867 was a nurse and social worker. She was the founder of American community nursing. She wanted that everyone would recognise

The effect of increased bank deposits ration with Chinese Central Bank Essay

The effect of increased bank deposits ration with Chinese Central Bank - Essay Example The effect of increased bank deposits ration with Chinese Central Bank If Chinese banks make more deposits with the central, the level of their total assets increase by the amount of deposits made to the central bank. Consequently, the central bank’s liabilities increase by the same amount of banks deposits. In most cases, the move will ensure that excess reserves within the banking system are reduced. In fact, banks will have to reduce their lending to households and firms by an equivalent amount deposited with the central bank. This policy measure could be realized if the central bank opts to sell bonds to banks from its portfolio to reduce excess reserves. For instance, the central bank might sell government bonds from available portfolios and the bonds could in turn be purchased by Chinese commercial banks. When banks make bonds payments by depositing an equivalent amount in reserves to the central bank, banks liabilities will increase by the amount of deposits made to the central whereas assets will increase by the amount of interest bearing bonds. However, the central bank’s assets will increase by the amount of deposits made while the assets will reduce by an equivalent amount of bonds issued. There are also numerous economic impacts ensuing from the decision made by People’s Central Bank. The effects are apparently depicted on the economic equilibrium (GDP) and expenses incurred. Indeed, the People’s Central Bank decision announcement that banks needs to hold extra deposits with China’s central bank causes considerable economic impact.

What was the scientific revolution all about How did this major Essay

What was the scientific revolution all about How did this major transition change overall lifestyle - Essay Example The books were title ‘De revolutionibus orbium coelestium’ (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) and De humani corporis fabrica’ (On the Fabric of the Human body) respectively. The two books were published in 1543. These two books were later followed by the Principia written by Isaac Newton in 1657. Introduction of Newton’s work was viewed as the climax for the works previously carried out in physics and astronomy since the Principia had laid a foundation for future developments in the two fields (Jacob 27). Before the advent of science, religion and philosophy were the main forces, which influenced people’s thinking. More specifically, the power of religion was more significant in Western Europe, and it had control over many aspects. Scientific revolution allowed people to  develop a distinct perspective about the world; science replaced philosophy. Religion-based ways of thinking started to fade out and logic was applied when searching for answers to questions that puzzled people regarding life, death, world and the universe. Therefore, science gave people a chance to solve numerous problems without consulting the gods as was the norm when religious approach was applied in solving issues (Shapin 47). Before the era of the scientific revolution, people used to view the world and the existing things as something only of god’s creation. This fact hindered many scientific developments since many people feared interfering with the gods’ creations, and religion was such a powerful force that united people together and never accepted any scientific development (Shapin 49). At the same time, the philosophical and religious thoughts used in solving problems before the advent of the scientific revolution advanced further. The educated People from the West at the time of the scientific revolution got a chance to advance their scientific skills to greater levels, which improved their

Biology Questions and Answers Essay Example for Free

Biology Questions and Answers Essay 2.) a) proteins b.) i) Amylase ii) Protease iii) Lipase c) i) Glucose ii) Amino Acids iii) Fatty acids and Glycerol 3.) a.) Each enzyme has a unique shape that fits onto the substrate. As enzymes normally only catalyse one reaction the substrate has to fit in the specific shape (active site) and if it doesn’t fit in (lock and key method) then the enzyme won’t be catalysed. b.) As when the enzyme is denatured it’s special shape is destroyed, thus destroying it’s active site meaning that the substrate wont be able to fit in, therefore not catalysing the enzyme. c.) As enzymes are specific when an enzyme catalyses an enzyme it can be used over and over again as they are not changed during the reaction. 5.) a.) if the concentration of the enzyme is increased the rate f the reaction will increase. This is because there will be more enzymes to help break down the substrate, however when the enzyme reaches it’s optimum it will be equal. b.) if the temperature is decreased it will drop the rate of reaction and slow down the speed of catalysing. c.) if the pH is lowered then the rate of reaction will drop causing the pH to interfere with the bonds holding the enzyme together and denaturing the enzyme. 7.) a.) i) the rate of reaction is increasing at a positive constant correlation, because the increase in temperature is causing the enzymes to move around faster increasing the chance of a collision. ii) the rate suddenly drops after it’s hit the optimum temperature, this is because the bonds holding the enzyme together have broke destroying enzymes special shape. b.) It increases it as it causes the enzymes to move around faster increasing the chance of a collision. c.) the bonds change it’s special shape causing it unable to catalyse substances. d.) A. it could be pepsin in the stomach e.) B, it could be phosphatases f.) it is very narrow.

The Importance of Teachers in Fostering Students’ Creativity Essay Example for Free

The Importance of Teachers in Fostering Students’ Creativity Essay The Importance of Teachers in Fostering Students’ Creativity Teacher attitudes, beliefs and classroom practices are deemed to be of crucial influence in the development of students’ creativity; however the importance of promoting creativity in schools is a controversial topic. There’s no doubt about it. Creativity is as natural and necessary for children as fresh air! By exposing our young learners to creative experiences, we give them the gift of a rich and memorable school experience while laying the foundation for a lifetime of creative expression and important learning skills that are essential at the individual, social, and global levels of society. Creativity is found in the obvious subjects such as art and music, but can also be found in science and play. We automatically associate creative thinking with art, music, dance, and drama. However, we must recognize that creative thinking can be found in all aspects of a child? life and can be learned and used daily. Creativity is important at so many levels of our society, including both the individual and the social levels. For example, at the individual level creativity is relevant to solving real life problems. At the social level, creative individuals pioneer progress in science and technology and the beauty in arts. Furthermore, creativity is important at the global level. Creative accomplishments help to build a more interactive world that fortifies human civilization. In fact, Starko argues that humans would have no advancement in art, literature, science or invention if human creativity did not exist. Ironically educators frequently teach students about creative and eminent people, but ignore teaching methods that foster students’ creative thinking in the classroom. The importance of the school’s role in the development of students’ creativity has been highlighted in many studies regarding creativity. The classroom is construed to open new pathways in children’s creativity (Cropley, 1994; Sternbeg, 1999; Starko, 1995). Therefore, teachers must play important roles to enhance the components of student’s creativity. Unfortunately, often times we are faced with a significant problem: What happens if this teacher is not a real leader? In education, as in so many other areas of society, new kinds of organizations and models of leadership are needed. Organization and leadership are symbiotic; meaning one cannot thrive without the other. The work of new leaders is precisely to help create such new organizational models through new models of leadership. But what constitutes leadership in education? The word education comes from the Latin word educare meaning, â€Å"To lead out of†. Therefore, we could argue that to study education is to study leadership and educators must be leaders by definition. There are many reasons as to why teachers have not assumed the appropriate leadership roles necessary in schools and education. First of all, there has been confusion between the meaning of leadership and that of management supervision and administration. Historically, â€Å"professional† teachers were not only expected to obey their superiors and restrain from questioning authority, but also were expected to view their calling as a vocation – not primarily a career. A â€Å"good† teacher was expected to stay in the classroom and teach the students, motivate them, and encourage their creativity no less than a â€Å"good woman† was expected to stay at home and take care of the children. Teachers themselves need to become agents of change in order to fulfill the necessary role of leader in the classroom. For example, engaging in collaborative activities and personal reflection could help them be a good leader. The behavior of the teacher and whether or not they have assumed the role of leader has a significant influence on students’ creative thinking in the classroom. It is incredibly important that a teacher is aware of one’s own behavior and the environment they create in the classroom. For example, the teacher must act as a positive role model, since the behaviors that the teacher displays shape the behaviors students develop. Also, the teacher must build a classroom atmosphere that allows for creativity to flourish. This could be an atmosphere that is constructively responsive to unusual ideas. Finally, the teacher must put forward an effort to reward and foster students’ creativity through instructional activities. These three aspects of the teacher’s role in the classroom reflect personality (e. g. openness), intellectual (e. g. creativity), and knowledge prerequisites (e. g. instructional knowledge) that a teacher needs to foster creativity in their students. Unfortunately, many teachers are not prepared to foster creativity or simply do not value creativity in the classroom, which leads to problems among creative children. Some behavioral and personality traits that are common among creative children include, impulsiveness, nonconformist, disorganized, adventurous and imaginative. In general, teachers have a negative view of the characteristics associated with creativity, and therefore could be the root of teachers’ unwillingness to foster creativity in the classroom. If a teacher is a real leader and has sufficient knowledge about â€Å"creativity†, one can modify his/her relationship with these students. There are many ways to modify content, process, learning environment, and products that are challenging for creative students; nonetheless, teachers are slow to integrate modifications into their teaching learning practices because of administration problems. Regarding content and process modifications, if we consider all learning activities valuable for fostering the creativity of children; we can perceive the importance of independent learning and collaboration for creativity. Starko states that a classroom environment that supports universal ideas provides freedom of thought and freedom of choice and is conclusive to creative achievement. In conclusion, we can see that teachers who respect children’s ideas succeed in helping them learn to think and solve problems for themselves. Children who feel free to make mistakes, explore, and experiment, will also feel free to invent, create, and find new ways to do things. The side benefit is that fostering creativity in our classroom makes teaching more rewarding and fun and gives children a zest for imagining and learning that could last a lifetime.

Stuxnet Network Worm Computer Science Essay

Stuxnet Network Worm Computer Science Essay Stuxnet, a network worm that, during the early part of 2010, began to infect Industrial Control Systems (ICS) and programmable logic controllers (PLCs) becoming the first rootkit for PLCs. PLCs are usually not connected to the Internet, or the internal network, so the creators had to devise a method to get the worm onto these systems. The worm would use 4 zero-day vulnerabilities to propagate through internal networks, and would load itself onto flash drives. Once the flash drive was plugged into an ICS, it would copy itself onto the system, and begin to check to see if there was a PLC attached to the system. The worm would first gather information of its victim to determine if it was its target, and if it found it, the worm would began to alter the code of the PLCs which were believed to sabotage the systems. In the end it is undetermined if Stuxnet reached its goal. Stuxnet Stuxnet is a worm that is said to be an incredibly large and complex threat. It was primarily written to target a specific ICS or a set of similar systems, likely somewhere in Iran. The final goal of Stuxnet is to reprogram an ICS by modifying the code on the PLCs to make them work in the manner the attacker intended, such as operate outside normal boundaries, and to hid these changes from the operators of the machine. The creators, in order to achieve their goal, amassed a variety of components to increase the chance of success. These components included: zero-day exploits, anti-virus evasion techniques, windows rootkit, the first ever PLC Stuxnet 4 rootkit, hooking code, process injection, network infection routines, peer-to-peer updates, and a command and control interface. The worm was found in July of 2010, and is confirmed to have existed a year prior to that, and likely it has existed before that, with a majority of the infections being based in Iran. June 2009 was the earliest Stuxnet sample seen. It did not exploit an auto-run function of a removable storage, and did not contain signed drivers to install itself. In January of 2010, Stuxnet reappeared, this time it had signed certificate from Realtek, and could install itself without any problems. July of 2010 Microsoft revokes the stolen Realtek driver used by Stuxnet, and the very next day, Stuxnet reemerges with a signed JMicron Technology Corp certificate. By September of 2010, the wormà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s exploits have been patched by Microsoft, and all stolen signed certificates revoked. Stuxnet had many features included into it to make sure it reached its goal. Some of these features included a self-replication through removable storage, spreading with a vulnerability in Windows Print Spooler, making itself execute with the Step 7 project, updating through peer-to-peer, command and control server for updates by a hacker, bypasses security features, and hides all modified code on PLCs. Stuxnet is capable of more, far more, but these are the most noticeable features about this worm that make it a large and complex threat. Stuxnet 5 Injection The injection method used by Stuxnet was complex, due to the fact that it had to make sure it would infect its target machine, and so it could bypass any security encountered. In order to load any .dll, including itself, Stuxnet would call the LoadLibrary with a specially crafted name that does not exist on the disk and normally cause LoadLibrary to fail. However, W32.Stuxnet has hooked Ntdll.dll to monitor for requests to load specifically crafted file names. These specially crafted file names are mapped to another location instead that is specified by W32.Stuxnet. Once a .dll file has been loaded by this method, GetProcAddress is then used to find the address of a specific export from the .dll file and that export is called, handing control to the new .dll file. If Stuxnet detects any security software, it will get the main version of it and rerun itself in a new process to bypass the scanning of the software. The process of injecting itself into a process is located in Export 15. First it checks the configuration data of the system, and then it will check to see if the system is 64-bit, which if it is it will exit the system. Once it has determined it is running on a 32-bit system it will check the OS, and then check to see if it has admin rights. If it does not it will check the os once more and determine if it is on XP of Vista. If it is on XP used a zero-day vulnerability in Win32k.sys, and use an escalation of privilege to restart itself in csrss.exe. If it is on Vista is uses a zero-day vulnerability in Task Scheduler, to escalate its privilege, and restart as any new task. Once it has the highest admin rights, Stuxnet will then call Export 16. Stuxnet 6 Export 16 installs Stuxnet onto the system and will also check the configuration data of the system. It will then check the registry value of NTVDM Trace, and if it is 19790509, it will not proceed. This is thought to be an infection marker, or a do not infect marker. If it is not set to this it will continue installation. Stuxnet then checks the date, if it is past 06/24/2012, it will exit and not install, this is Stuxnetà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s kill switch date. It will then see if it is on XP or Vista. If on XP it will set the DACL, if on Vista it will set the SACL. It will then create its files, including its main payload file Oem7a.pnf. It then checks the date one more time, before decrypting its files and loading itself onto the disk, and then calling export 6 to get its version. It will then compare its version number with one on the disk, and then install its rootkit files, Mrxcls.sys and Mrxnet.sys. It will then hide all its malicious files, and infect any removable storage devic e, and then finally infects Step 7 projects. Attack ICS are operated by specialized code on PLCs, which are often programmed from Windows computers that are not connected to any network. The creator would have needed the schematics of the ICS, to know which ones the worm should go after, so it is believed an insider, or an early version of Stuxnet, retrieved them. They would then create the latest version of Stuxnet, which each feature of it was implemented for a reason and for the final goal of the worm. The worm would then need to be tested on a mirrored environment to make sure the program worked correctly. The hackers needed signed certificates to allow Stuxnetà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s drivers to be installed and to get them they would have had to physically go into the companies and take Stuxnet 7 them. Once this was accomplished the worm would needed to be introduced into the environment of infection, and was done so by a willing or un-willing third party, such as a contractor of the systems, which was most likely done with a flash drive. Once injected into the systems, Stuxnet would begin to spread in search of Windows computers used to program PLCs, which are called field PGs. Since these computers are not networked, Stuxnet would spread through LAN using a zero-day vulnerability, infecting Step 7 projects, and through removable storage. Once Stuxnet found a computer running Step 7, it would begin to check values from the ICS, determining if it was on the correct system. It would do this for 13 days to 3 months, and then wait two hours, before sending a network burst to the connected devices. These burst were the newly modified PLC code that contained instructs to change the frequency at which the devices operated on, making them operate outside of normal boundaries. Victims would not see the modified code, as Stuxnet hides its modifications by intercepting read and write commands. If someone sent a read command to the PLC, Stuxnet would intercept it, and if it was to read an infected section, Stuxnet would pull an unedited copy from itself, and send it to the person. If it was a write command, Stuxnet would make it seem like it went through. Though the attack caused more damage due to it spreading beyond the target onto outside computers, it is likely this was necessary to achieve their goal. It is believed the attackers accomplished their goal before they were discovered. Due to all this, Stuxnet is believed to be one of the most complex malicious software written to date. Stuxnet 8

The First Triumvirate :: Ancient Rome Roman History

The First Triumvirate "3 paragraphs, why did Caesar, Pompey and Crassus need the (amicittia) First Triumvirate." Crassus' motives for the need for the First Triumvirate according to Scullard are as follows, "Crassus supported a request from a company of tax-gatherers that the Senate should adjust a bad bargain which they had made in contracting for the taxes of Asia." His supporters had found out that Asia had been 'economically raped' due to the Mithradatic wars, where Asia was sandwiched. Cato, basically turning Crassus' political career towards the wall and going nowhere, rejected the one-third rebate. This was really bad in political terms his career had stagnated for such a politically ambitious man. Pompey's motives for the need of the First Triumvirate are according to Scullard both political and personal. As Scullard seems to suggest, " ... Pompey had been rebuffed by the Optimates in both his private and public life. Cato rejected a suggestion that Pompey should marry one of his relations, but of greater importance was Pompey's double request that his eastern settlement should be ratified by the Senate and that land should be provided for his veterans." Pompey who had promised his veterans land. The way he disbanded his army and approached the Senate alone requesting his reasonable requests seems to suggest that he was fairly confident that he had achieved enough, and that the Senate would pass the request, but instead the Senate rejected his requests. A few attempts where made to pass the land bill for his troops with the use of Afranius and Metellus Celer both proved ineffective. His political career had too stagnated and hit the wall, this would be going nowhere. The senate rejecting the ratification of the eastern settlement, which is perfectly normal due to the fact that sources suggest that Pompey did it on his own, will and did not consult the senate, so the even though what he did was an extraordinary achievement the Senate can say no and so they did. Caesar upon arriving back from his outstanding success, in Spain he paid back his enormous debt to Crassus and still a multi millionare. On his return he wanted a triumph and the consulship, but since he could not as a commander enter the city to stand for election, he asked the Senate for permission to stand in absentia. "Though there were precedents, the Senate refused." Caesar abandoned his triumph and entered Rome as an ordinary candidate.

Proposal Paper -- Essays Papers

Proposal Paper Like the previous paper I enjoyed writing this one as well. I have been skiing for 14years, so this is something I'm interested in. In the process of writing this paper I heard conflicting views from pro and con helmet sides. My dad was upset by the fact that I wrote about why you shouldn't wear ski helmets, because he wears one when he skis. Personal preference backed up by convincing evidence I found in multiple places helped me prove my position against ski helmets at high speeds. I have been skiing since I was four years old. When I started skiing in 1989 very few people were using helmets. Who know whether or not any lives could have been saved with the use of helmets on the slopes? Since 1989 ski helmets have come a long way from the dorky, bulky head gear that was the ski helmet. They are no longer â€Å"uncool†. Adam Ruck of the Sunday Telegraph in London put it well, regarding ski helmets, â€Å"Swing one from your wrist in a nonchalant fashion as you talk big air and bottomless powder, and you won’t pay for many drinks† (Ruck). In fact ski helmets are becoming a fashion statement, sporting names most of the high end ski equipment manufacturers. Although important, fashion would better off taking a backseat to safety when it comes to skiing. Before ski helmets were ever functional they were purely meant to be functional. Functional meaning wearing one will protect your noggin from impacts and collisions. Helmets are designed with the skier in mind, obviously. They are expected to be manufactured and tested to withstand what Mother Nature has to throw at you plus more. And after paying on average $83 (gotriad.com), is it really worth it to purchase something that claims to protect you. For all... ...on). 8 Feb. 2004. Lexis Nexis Academic. 26 Mar. 2004 Consumer Reports. â€Å"Ski Helmets; Safety on the Slopes† Consumer Reports Magazine. Dec 2003, Vol. 68 Issue 12, p54, 3p, 3 charts, 3c. Lexis Nexis Academic. 26 Mar. 2004 http://search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=11354490&db=aph Works Consulted Nicholson, Kieran. â€Å"Economy hits effort pushing helmets. Aid sought for program to cut injuries on slopes.† Denver Post. 27 Feb. 2004 Lexis Nexis Academic. 26 Mar. 2004.

Information Systems and Organization Essay

This paper, and the special issue, address relationships between information systems and changes in the organization of modern enterprise, both within and across firms. The emerging organizational paradigm involves complementary changes in multiple dimensions. The revolution in information systems merits special attention as both cause and effect of the organizational transformation. This can be illustrated by considering two key variables: the location of information and the location of decision rights in organizations. Depending on the costs of information transmission and processing, either the â€Å"MIS solution† of transferring information, or the â€Å"organizational redesign solution† of moving decision rights, can be an effective approach toward achieving the necessary collocation of information and decision rights. When information systems change radically, one cannot expect the optimal organizational structure to be unaffected. Considering the interplay among information, incentives and decision rights in a unified fashion leads to new insights and a better organizational planning. The papers in the special issue address different facets of this interaction. Despite significant progress, our understanding of the economic role of information systems in organizations remains in its infancy. We conclude that successful design of modern enterprise will require further narrowing  of the historic gap between research in information systems and research in economics. The organization of work is in the midst of transformation. In many industries, mass production by large, vertically-integrated, hierarchically-organized firms is giving way to more flexible forms of both internal organization and industrial structure. Work is increasingly accomplished through networks of smaller, more focused enterprises. The resulting structure of loosely coupled sub-organizations blurs the boundaries of both firms and industries. A canonical case in point is the computer industry. In the past, the industry was dominated by large, vertically-integrated firms such as IBM and Digital Equipment which created products and services throughout the value chain — from the microprocessor level all the way up to the provision of solutions. The vertical structure is now being replaced by a series of layers, each of which is, in effect, a separate industry. Value is generated by ever-changing coalitions, where each member of a coalition specializes in its area of core competence and leverages it through the use of tactical or strategic partnerships. Internally, team structures are replacing the traditional hierarchical form, and the Silicon Valley model of internal organization is emerging as a clear winner.3 Internal incentives are increasingly based on performance, and this further blurs the differences between inter- and intra-firm contracts. In sum, modern enterprise is undergoing major restructuring. In this short paper we briefly discuss the newly emerging organizational paradigms and their relationship to the prevailing trends in information technology (IT). We argue that IT is an important driver of this transformation. Finally, we place the studies selected for this special issue of the Journal of Organizational Computing within this context. 1. Emerging Organizational Paradigms: Symptoms and Causes At the turn of the century, Frederick Taylor sought to put the nascent wisdom  for successful business organization on a scientific basis. His work guided a generation of managers towards success in meshing their organizations with the technologies, markets, labor and general environment of the era. By the 1920s, Henry Ford had applied the Taylorist approach with a vengeance and soon dominated the automobile market, driving dozens of competitors under. Ironically, these same principles are almost diametrically opposed to the prevailing wisdom of the 1990s. For example, consider the following guideline from The Science of Management [1] It is necessary in any activity to have a complete knowledge of what is to be done and to prepare instructions†¦ the laborer has only to follow instructions. He need not stop to think. The current emphasis on â€Å"empowerment†, â€Å"learning organizations†, and even â€Å"thriving on chaos† stands in sharp contrast to Meyers’ advice (cf. [2] , [3] ). Similar contrast can be found with many, if not most, of the other principles that lead to success even as late as the 1960s. Consider, for example, the growing calls for downsizing (vs. economies of scale), focus (vs. conglomerates), total quality (vs. cost leadership), project teams (vs. functional departments), supplier partnerships (vs. maximizing bargaining power), networked organization (vs. clear firm boundaries); performance-based pay (vs. fixed pay), and local autonomy (vs. rigid hierarchy). Milgrom and Roberts [4] make the point that the different characteristics of modern manufacturing, an important example of the emerging organizational paradigm, are often highly complementary. This complementarity, coupled with the natural tendency to change organizational attributes one at a time, makes the transition from one paradigm to another particularly difficult. Strong complementarity implies that in order to be successful, change must be implemented simultaneously along a number of related dimensions. Organizations that adopt only one or two key components of the new organizational paradigm may fail simply by virtue of this complementarity. For instance, Jaikumar’s [5] study of 95 US and Japanese companies found that the majority of US companies had failed to achieve productivity  increases despite switching to flexible manufacturing technology. The reason was that they had preserved dozens of manufacturing practices such as long production runs and high work-in-process inventory levels, which complemented the old technology but kept the new technology from fulfilling its potential. Thus, the transition from the old structure to the new one is overwhelmingly complex. The switch would be easier if we apply design guided by theory instead of piecemeal evolution. There are many possible explanations for the change in the prevailing wisdom regarding organizational design. For instance, it is common to justify calls for radical change with reference to heightened competitive pressures: although firms that applied the old principles were among the most successful competitors of their day, presumably the nature of competition has changed in some way. Others suggest that consumer tastes have changed, making customized items more appealing than they once were. While historians would argue that the taste for mass marketed items was itself something that had to be developed in the early days of mass production, increased wealth or social stratification may make this more difficult today. It can also be argued that some of the new principles were as applicable fifty years ago as they are today, but that they simply had not yet been discovered. Although the enablers of the current organizational transformation are undoubtedly numerous and far from mutually independent, we would like to single one out for special attention: the rise in IT. Brynjolfsson [6, p.6] argues that IT is an appropriate candidate for explaining these changes for three reasons: First, compared to other explanations, the advances in information technology have a particularly reasonable claim to being both novel and exogenous. Many of the fundamental technological breakthroughs that enable today’s vast information infrastructure were made less than a generation ago and were driven more by progress in physics and engineering than business demand. Second, the growth in information technology investment is of a large enough magnitude to be economically significant †¦ the result has been what is commonly referred to as the â€Å"information explosion†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Third, there is a  sound basis for expecting an association between the costs of technologies that manage information and the organization of economic activity. The firm and the market have each been frequently modeled as primarily information processing institutions (see Galbraith [7] and Hayek [8] , respectively). Miller [9] foresaw the key features of the new paradigm as a natural outcome of the information era and the associated â€Å"economy of choice†: The new technologies will allow managers to handle more functions and widen their span of control. Fewer levels of management hierarchy will be required, enabling companies to flatten the pyramid of today’s management structure. The new information technologies allow decentralization of decision-making without loss of management awareness; thus employees at all levels can be encouraged to be more creative and intrapreneurial. The key responsibility of the CEO will be leadership; to capture the light or energies of the organization — like a lens — and focus them on the key strategic objectives. The new organizational paradigm is indeed intertwined with the structure of an organization’s information systems. Under the old paradigm, the firm was governed by a relatively rigid functional structure. This separation into distinct and well-defined organizational units economizes on the information and communications requirements across functional units and reduces cost and complexity. There is a tradeoff, however: the old structure is less flexible, less responsive and ultimately results in lower quality. In our view, the growing use of IT and the trend towards networking and client-server computing are both a cause and an effect of the organizational transition. Lowering the costs of horizontal communications, facilitating teamwork, enabling flexible manufacturing and providing information support for time management and quality control are key enablers on the supply side. It is equally clear that the new organizational paradigm demands new information systems: nothing can be more devastating for cross-functional teamwork than a rigid information system that inhibits cross-functional information flows. We can unify these perspectives by noting that the structure of the organization’s information system is a key element of  organizational transformation. Changes in IT change the nature of organizations just as changes in organizational structure drive the development of new technologies. 2. Information Systems, Economics and Organizational Structure Jensen and Meckling [10] provide a useful framework for studying the complementarities between information systems, incentive structures and decision rights in organizations. In their framework, the structure of an organization is specified by three key elements: (i) The allocation of decision rights (i.e., who is responsible for what actions/decisions); (ii) the incentive system, which defines how decision makers are to be rewarded (or penalized) for the decisions they make; and (iii) a monitoring and measurement scheme used to evaluate these actions and their outcomes. According to Jensen and Meckling, informational variables are key to the structure of organizations because the quality of decisions is determined by the quality of information available to the decision maker. The co-location of information and decision rights enables the decision maker to make optimal decisions. The implementation of this co-location depends on the nature of the pertinent information. Jensen and Meckling distinguish between â€Å"specific knowledge† which is localized, difficult to represent and transfer, and depends on idiosyncratic circumstances, and â€Å"general knowledge† which can be easily summarized, communicated and shared by decision makers. Now, there are two ways to bring information and decision rights together: (i) â€Å"The MIS solution†: transfer the information required for the decision to the decision maker, using the organization’s (possibly non-automated) information systems; or (ii) â€Å"the organizational redesign solution†: redesign the organizational structure so that the decision making authority is where the pertinent information is. By definition, general knowledge which is useful for a decision calls for the â€Å"MIS solution† because it can be transferred at low cost. In contrast, when specific knowledge plays a key role in a decision, the best solution calls for restructuring decision  rights so as to provide the decision authority to the one who possesses or has access to the pertinent information (since the transfer of specific knowledge is too costly).4 Jensen and Meckling thus represent the structure of organizations as an efficient response to the structure of their information costs. But then, a change in information costs must induce a change in organizational structure. In particular, IT has changed the costs of processing and transferring certain types of information (e.g. quantitative data), but has done little for other types (e.g. implicit knowledge or skills). IT changes the structure of organizations by facilitating certain information flows as well as by turning knowledge that used to be specific into general knowledge. By developing a taxonomy of information types and identifying the differential impacts of new technologies on their transferability and importance, we can take a significant step towards applying the simple insight that information and authority should be co-located [11] . Intra-organizational networks and workgroup computing facilities reduce the information costs of teamwork and hence make it a more efficient solution to the organizational design problem. Client-server computing technology lowers cross-functional (as well as geographic) barriers. IT (when applied properly) streamlines the types of information that used to be the raison d’etre of middle management — quantitative control information — and turns it into general knowledge that can be readily transmitted to, and processed by, people other than those who originally gathered the data. A reduction in the number of management layers and the thinning out of middle management ranks is the predictable result. Similar considerations apply to enterprises that cross firm boundaries. As a simple example, consider the organization of trading activities [12, 13, 14] . Traditionally, trading took place on the floor of an exchange, which was the locus of numerous pieces of specific knowledge, ranging from the hand signals indicating bids and offers to buy and sell a security to traders’ facial expressions and the â€Å"atmosphere† on the floor of the exchange. Under that structure, much of the information pertinent to trading is specific and  localized to the floor. Thus, when an investor instructs her broker to sell 1,000 shares of a given stock, the broker transmits the order to the floor of the exchange and only the floor broker attempts to provide â€Å"best execution†. The decision rights (here, for the trading decisions) are naturally delegated to the decision maker who has the pertinent specific knowledge, and since that knowledge resides on the floor of the exchange, the floor broker is best suited to have the decision rights. Technology, and in particular â€Å"screen-based† systems, turns much of the specific knowledge on the floor (i.e., bids and offers) into general knowledge. This shifts decision rights up from the floor to the brokers’ screens. The inevitable result is the decline of the trading floor and the increased importance of brokers’ trading rooms. The demise of the trading floor in exchanges that turned to screen-based trading (such as London and Paris) is a natural outcome of the shift in the locus of knowledge. More generally, markets — in particular, electronic markets –transform specific knowledge into general knowledge [15] . Ironically, even as IT has sped up many links of the information processing chain and vastly increased the amount of information available to any one decision-maker, it has also led to the phenomenon of â€Å"information overload†. This can perhaps best be understood by a generalization of the Jensen and Meckling framework to include finite human information processing capacity. As more information moves from the â€Å"specific† category to the â€Å"general† category, the limiting factor becomes not what information is available but rather a matter of finding the human information processing capacity needed to attend to and process the information. Computers appear to have exacerbated the surfeit of information relative to processing capacity, perhaps because the greatest advances have occurred in the processing and storage of structured data, which is generally a complement, not a substitute, for human information processing. As computer and communications components increase their speed, the human bottleneck in the information processing chain becomes ever more apparent. Information overload, when interpreted in light of this framework, can provide an explanation for the increased autonomy and pay-for-performance  that characterize a number of descriptions of the â€Å"new managerial work† (cf. [6] ). Economizing on information costs means that more decision rights are delegated to line managers who possess the idiosyncratic, specific knowledge necessary to accomplish their tasks. Shifting responsibility from the overburdened top of the hierarchy to line personnel not only reduces the information processing load at the top of the hierarchy, but also cuts down unnecessary communications up and down the hierarchy. This blurs the traditional distinction between â€Å"conceptualization† and â€Å"execution† and broadens the scope of decision rights delegated to lower level managers. By the Jensen-Meckling [10] framework, any such shift in decision authority (and in the associated routing of information) must also be accompanied by a change in the structure of incentives. Disseminating information more broadly is ever easier with IT, allowing line workers to take into account information that goes well beyond the formerly-narrow definitions of their job. Meanwhile, providing the right incentives for the newly â€Å"empowered† work force is an equally crucial element of the current reorganization of work. Agency theory predicts that performance-based â€Å"pay† is necessary when decision rights are decentralized (otherwise, the agents may be induced to act in ways that are inconsistent with overall organizational goals). It therefore follows that incentive-based compensation is appropriate for better-informed workers [16].5 Thus, the confluence of better-informed workers, an empowered workforce and more incentive-based pay is consistent with our thesis that IT is a key driver of the new organizational paradigm. Furthermore, the theory of incomplete contracts suggests that the analysis can be extended to include interorganizational changes such as increased reliance on outsourcing and â€Å"networks† of other firms for key components [17] . Here again the shift can be explained in incentive terms: one ultimate incentive is ownership, so entrepreneurs are likely to be more innovative and aggressive than the same individuals working as â€Å"division† managers. Both within and across organizations, then, changes in information systems are accompanied by changes in incentives and in the organization of work. 3. The Special Issue The papers in this special issue attest to the role of information systems in the structure of modern enterprise and the blurring of the differences between inter- and intra-firm transactions. Starting from the firm’s level, Barron’s paper studies how a firm determines its internal organization and how IT affects this determination. Barron considers a traditional firm, with well-defined boundaries that are endogenously determined by considering flexibility and scope of control. Ching, Holsapple and Whinston broaden the scope of the enterprise to the â€Å"network organization† — a construct obtained by tying together a number of firms that cooperate through a well-defined communication mechanism. Specifically, they use a bidding protocol to manage the relationship between suppliers and producers. Beath and Ang examine another form of inter-firm cooperation, the relational contract, in the context of software-development outsourcing. They show how relational contracts embody a relationship that can be characterized as a network consisting of two organizations. Whang studies a more subtle form of networking — information sharing between buyers and suppliers. Bakos and Brynjolfsson examine the impact of incentives and information costs on the nature of buyer-supplier relationships. They show that committing to a partnership with a small number of suppliers can be an optimal strategy for a buyer because it will maximize the suppliers’ incentives for non-contractible investments such as information sharing, innovation or quality. The papers thus present a spectrum ranging from a study of the boundaries of the traditional firm through different forms of networking to explicit buyer-supplier relationships. A common theme is the organization of work so as to reduce overall information costs not only within an organization but across them as well. The surviving enterprise is often (though not always) the one that attempts to reduce information costs while capitalizing on the comparative advantage of the participating organizations. This calls for â€Å"opportunistic cooperation† that benefits the members of the network for as long as they cooperate. IT reduces the costs of such cooperation by  facilitating communication and increasing the flexibility of the participating organizations. Using the Jensen-Meckling terminology, different network participants can make more effective use of their specific knowledge when the costs of transferring and processing general knowledge are reduced. Further, technology enables the development of markets that, by their very nature, transform specific knowledge into general knowledge. Thus, the bidding and communications protocols proposed by Ching, Holsapple and Whinston in their paper â€Å"Modeling Network Organizations† effectively transform the specific knowledge inherent in the production technology of the competing suppliers into general knowledge that encompasses not only prices but also their reputations. From this perspective, IT is key to the development of network organizations. In his paper â€Å"Impacts of Information Technology on Organizational Size and Shape: Control and Flexibility Effects†, Barron builds a stylized quantitative model to study the impact of IT on the structure of organizations. Examining flexibility and scope of control, he identifies sixteen different cases with different patterns of the actual causality between IT and firm structure. Barron shows that simplistic statements regarding the impact of IT are not as straightforward as one might imagine due to the interaction of size, scope and flexibility. His results suggest that the impact of IT is rather complex, and that further specification is necessary prior to making predictions on the impact of IT on organizational size or shape. â€Å"Hierarchical Elements in Software Contracts† by Beath and Ang focuses on the contractual structure of outsourced software development. This is an interesting example of the new organizational paradigm because of the key role of information systems in any organization. Effective software development hinges on cooperation, communication and joint management which are at the heart of the new organizational paradigm. Beath and Ang examine the mechanisms used to govern outsourcing projects as specified in their outsourcing contracts. They suggest that the relational contract, which converts an arms-length transaction into a joint project with governance and resolution procedures that resemble those used by firms internally, is an  effective way to accomplish this. Thus, while Ching, Holsapple and Whinston view bidding and explicit reputation formation as the alphabet of the network organization, Beath and Ang view actual contract clauses as the key linguistic constructs. The paper shows how the structure of the contract is driven by the attributes of the project as well as those of the parties to the transaction. In â€Å"Analysis of Economic Incentives for Inter-Organizational Information Sharing†, Whang addresses the question of information sharing in non-cooperative buyer-supplier settings. Whang studies this question for two different models. He first shows that due to adverse incentives, suppliers will not be willing to share information regarding their costs. The situation is different when the information to be conveyed is regarding the expected delay or lead time. Whang shows that suppliers are better off disclosing lead-time information to buyers (when the demand curve for their product is convex). This result is consistent with our general thesis, whereas the former one introduces a note of caution: adverse incentives pose limits to the scope of information sharing among network organizations. In â€Å"From Vendors to Partners: Information Technology and Incomplete Contracts in Buyer-Supplier Relationships†, Bakos and Brynjolfsson start with the assumption that, in many cases, complete information exchange between two firms will be infeasible, so any contract between them will be â€Å"incomplete† in the sense that some contingencies will remain unspecified. They then explore how the interplay of IT and organizational structure can affect the role of non-contractible investments, such as innovation, quality and the exchange of information. For example, Bakos and Brynjolfsson show that when fewer suppliers are employed, they collectively capture a larger share of the benefits of the relationship, and this will increase their incentives to make non-contractible investments. As a result, even when search costs are very low, it may be desirable for the buyer to limit the number of employed suppliers, leading to a partnership-type of relationship, rather than aggressively bargaining for all the benefits by threatening to switch among numerous alternative suppliers. Like Whang, they show that the incentive effects of the applications of IT must be explicitly considered in any model  of their effect on inter-organizational cooperation. 4. Conclusion In this paper, we have stressed the joint determination of the location of information and decision rights. The default mechanism used to achieve this co-location depends on one’s point of reference. Information Systems researchers are likely to take the locus of decision authority for granted. They will typically focus their attention on devising schemes that will efficiently organize, retrieve, sort, filter, transmit and display information for designated decision makers. In contrast, the economist is likely to focus on the allocation of decision rights and the concomitant effect on incentives.6 As we discussed in Section 2, transferring information and transferring decision authority are two sides of the same question. Because economics and information systems research evolved to address different problems, this complementarity long went unnoticed. Each of the papers in the special issue addresses a different aspect of the interplay among information, incentives and the structure of economic enterprise. In every case, insights resulted when both information and incentives were explicitly considered. Each paper contributes an additional piece to an emerging mosaic that describes not only the features of the new organization, but also gives some insight into their theoretical underpinnings. The papers in this special issue also highlight the incomplete state of knowledge in the subject area and the dearth of empirical guidance to the formulation and testing of theoretical research. We started this paper with a discussion of the computer industry as the canonical example of the new paradigm as exercised in Silicon Valley, and continued by arguing that its products actually fuel the shift to this paradigm. It is only appropriate to close the loop by examining the dictum of that paradigm as it applies to the inner workings of firms in the computer industry. A major effort along these lines in being undertaken by one of the authors and his colleagues in Stanford University’s Computer Industry Project. Understanding these changes so that they can be harnessed for productive ends remains a central challenge for the next decade of research. The rapid progress in designing computers and communications systems contrasts starkly with the uncertainty clouding organizational design. Yet, new ways of organizing will be necessary before the potential of IT can be realized. Furthermore, because the new organizational paradigms involve numerous complementarities, the trial-and-error methods which were important in the rise of the organizational forms of the past century, such as large hierarchies and mass markets, may be unsuited for making the next transition. Understanding and implementing one aspect of a new organizational structure without regard to its interaction with other aspects can leave the make the organization worse off than if no modifications at all were made. Design, rather than evolution, is called for when significant changes must be made along multiple dimensions simultaneously. Successful organizational design, in turn, requires that we understand the flow of information among humans and their agents every bit as well as we understand the flow of electrons in chips and wires. Perhaps, then, the revolution in information processing capabilities not only calls for a change in business organization, but also a re-evaluation of the historic separation between Information Systems and Economics. REFERENCES [1] Meyers, G. The Science of Management. In C. B. Thompson (Eds.), Scientific Management Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1914. [2] Kanter, R. M. â€Å"The New Managerial Work.† Harvard Business Review, Nov-Dec, 1989, pp. 85-92. [3] Peters, T. Thriving on Chaos, Handbook for a Management Revolution. New York: Knopf, 1988. [4] Milgrom, P. and Roberts, J. â€Å"The Economics of Modern Manufacturing: Technology, Strategy, and Organization.† American Economic Review, Vol. 80, No. 3, 1990. [5] Jaikumar, R. â€Å"Post-Industrial Manufacturing.† Harvard Business Review, November-December, 1986, pp. 69-76. [6] Brynjolfsson, E. Information Technology and the ‘New Managerial Work’. Working Paper # 3563-93. MIT, 1990. [7] Galbraith, J. Organizational Design. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1977. [8] Hayek, F. A. â€Å"The Use of Knowledge in Society.† American Economic Review, Vol. 35, No. 4, 1945. [9] Miller, W. F. The Economy of Choice. In Strategy, Technology and American Industry HBS Press, 1987. [10] Jensen, M. and Meckling, W. Knowledge, Control and Organizational Structure Parts I and II. In Lars, Werin and Hijkander (Eds.), Contract Economics (pp.251-274). Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1992. [11] Mendelson, H. On Centralization and Decentralization. Stanford, forthcoming, 1993. [12] Amihud, Y. and Mendelson, H. An Integrated Computerized Trading System. In Market Making and the Changing Structure of the Securities Industry (pp. 217-235). Lexington Heath, 1985. [13] Amihud, Y. and Mendelson, H. (1989). The Effects of Computer-Based Trading on Volatility and Liquidity. In H. C. Lucas Jr. and R. A. Schwartz (Eds.), The Challenge of Information Technology for the Securities Markets. (pp. 59-85). Dow Jones-Irwin. [14] Amihud, Y. and Mendelson, H. â€Å"Liquidity, Volatility and Exchange Automation.† Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Finance, Vol. 3, Fall, 1988, pp. 369-395. [15] Malone, T. W., Yates, J. and Benjamin, R. I. â€Å"Electronic Markets and Electronic Hierarchies.† Communications of the ACM, Vol. 30, No. 6, 1987, pp. 484-497. [16] Baker, G. P. â€Å"Incentive Contracts and Performance Measurement.† Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 100, No. 3, June, 1992. [17] Brynjolfsson, E. â€Å"An Incomplete Contracts Theory of Information, Technology, and Organization.† Management Science, forthcoming, 1993.

Creative nonfiction †Werner Essay

?Jo Ann Beard is primarily acknowledged as a writer of creative nonfiction. What is creative nonfiction you ask? Creative nonfiction is the writing of real events using the same techniques used to create fiction; however, the writing does not contain facts from the incident. One of the many creative nonfictions written by Beard is â€Å"Werner. † Werner Hoeflich heads home to his apartment in New York City after spending the evening at his catering job. Between the hours of four and five A. M. , Werner catches sounds of squeals and he wakes up to discover a tremendous amount of smoke floating in his apartment. Werner jumps out the window into the next door building; he astoundingly survives the devastating fire. Beard very effectively illustrates the process going through Werner’s head in the heat of the situation. Her words clearly describe how Werner jumped back and forth from his mind flashes, giving the reader a marvelous amount of information about Werner’s history. ?Beard is trying to reach out to readers who enjoy reality molded into nonfiction. She is reaching out to readers who enjoy creating scenes in their minds while interpreting the text. The information Beard is trying to convey is pretty straight forward. She is trying to convey how Werner, the main character, felt during the terrible incident. She wants to convey to the reader that every scene was conceivable even though it was now a work of creative nonfiction. Beard wanted to go to the extent where the readers would believe that they were there while the apartment building had been caught on fire. She wanted them to be present in the moment, be alive with the character of Werner. ?The success of the story starts right from the beginning. Jo Ann Beard grabs the readers in by using the ominous effect. For those who don’t know, the ominous effect is the feeling created by the author that something is either about to go wrong or has already gone wrong. By using this, the author is warning the readers that something intolerably erroneous is about to happen. Not only is this a sign for the reader, but it also creates hazard for the storyteller. The writer has to make sure the story is descriptive enough so the reader is able to tell that the events taking place are not something that will usually occur in that specific setting. Beard successfully succeeded using this effect because she is straight forward to her readers; she lets them know that night was not an ordinary night in New York City. This saves the readers from getting confused later on during the story. Beard describes the setting when Werner walked home after work: â€Å"But on that night it wasn’t like that; it was cold and fresh on the dark streets† (1). She also describes the setting surrounding his apartment: â€Å"The trees on his block were scrawny and impervious, like invalid aunts† (1). Comparing these two sentences to the description of New York City on a regular day is like comparing a cat to a dog. Beard description of New York of colored sunrises, banded cows, and Dairy Queens just didn’t connect with the idea of the mysterious streets or the spindly trees. The negative feeling generated from these two sentences from Beard’s story act as signals to be cautious of what’s ahead. Not does this only catch the reader’s attention, but it also creates curiosity. ? Even though the ominous effect alone can create an interest for the readers, Beard added foreshadowing. The ominous effect brought the story the reader’s attention and created curiosity. The readers were aware that what they were going to read ahead won’t be pleasant. The thought of what it would be kept them reading. By adding foreshadowing, Beard now also had the reader’s interest and formed suspicion. She described the act of the bird at the beginning of the story, â€Å"The bird had sharpened both sides of its beak on the branch and then made a veering, panicky flight to a windowsill far above† (1). After being freaked out by the fire, Werner’s actions were described by Beard, â€Å"He went in up to his knees, which landed on the stone sill, body all the way through onto somebody’s bed, right into their apartment†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (11). Foreshadowing can really play with the reader’s mind. The readers do not know when the foreshadowing will occur. Sometimes they don’t even know if it will occur or not. Beard also did a very well job of using the technique of foreshadowing. To use this technique, the author must plan ahead and must know exactly what the ending will be. The author must use enough information to create curiosity but not enough for the ending to be given away. In any story, providing clues to a perceptive reader is quite engaging. Once a reader knows foreshadowing is in use, they will be more careful reading and looking for important details. Another impact foreshadowing creates on the reader is the effort to make predictions. Since the readers do not know when to expect the foreshadowing, they will make predictions and get more involved with the story. ?The author efficiently demonstrated Werner’s thoughts through illustrating pictures through the  reader’s head along the way. She came up with ways to make her story engaging. The use of different literary devices helped attract the readers to the text and continue reading without being bored. Beard very successfully created a piece of creative nonfiction that not only told a story of an event, but also had her readers be present and alive. Since the readers could visualize every moment themselves, Beard most likely had left her readers believing it was them inside that apartment building and not Werner.

Future of software engineering Essay

The term â€Å"Software Engineering† implies a literal meaning of the mechanics and the engineering aspects of building and deploying a software or program. However, the topic of this paper is to justify and explain the future support that organizational goals can get in the organization’s workings. The paper will be presenting the aspects of software engineering as a tool for helping organization’s fulfilling their goals. The area selected for this paper is â€Å"Decision Support Systems† i. e. the importance and suitability of such systems will be discussed as the future of software engineering. Decision support systems (DSS) will be defined in greater detail in the accompanying sections and their advantages and disadvantages will be highlighted in the final chapter. It is important to note that DSS’s are under-used in the world in terms of quantity as well as efficiency. There are very few organizations in the world that house a fully up-and-working DSS and use it extensively for the purpose of analyzing and summarizing data. The logical details of a DSS are also laid down in this paper that can lead to the relation of such systems with our topic and justify their future uses in achieving organizational goals and objectives. The level where DSS operate is also well-differentiated and the general misconceptions held about these systems are also explained to avoid confusions and expose their real job and workings. CHAPTER 2 Decision Support Systems are those systems that give an organization the edge in making decisions and understanding data by making it meaningful in a presentable and summarized output. These systems assist in the general decision making; they do not make or propose the decisions, as is the general misconception about them. Their job is to gather data, process it in pre-defined formats, accompany related information and present in an easy-to-read and user-friendly format. These systems basically cater to the needs of the executives who do not possess enough time to read all source data and need the top view of figures or data in order to shape up decisions. Thus, DSS organize data and fulfill management needs by using modeling software and/or simulation to produce reports and ad hoc queries consuming up data and raw facts and churning out meaningful information and figures. There is no restriction on the organization level on which a DSS can be installed and similarly a DSS can cater to a variety of organizational needs and objectives from all levels within the organization (Marakas, 2002). DSS are systems that take in raw facts and figures, process them, analyze and summarize those figures providing the top view or the analysis of that entire data set. Now it should be understood that the data taken by a DSS for analyzing purpose is not the basic data contained in organizational tables and files. In fact, this data is partially processed: it is the output from a Management Reporting System (MRS). An MRS is used to generate grouped reports at the Operational level (Marakas, 1998). An example would include the hours worked by each employee during a particular month. It should be understood that there is no bias or conditional filter used in disseminating the data produced by an MRS. Hence, the DSS is fortunate enough to lay its hands on data that is predominantly raw and organized. This leads to significant time saves in terms of organizing data by understanding its relevance and scope. An MRS produced report has a narrow scope (Marakas, 1998). However, DSS reports and documents are more long-lasting and can be used for future referencing. In fact, a DSS is used to produce summaries of work over time periods defined by the management or automatically set. These reports are then archived and are useful in personal analysis of trends and performance. DSS assist management in doing Trend-Analysis, forecasting and taking decisions based on the analyzed results (Holsapple and Whinston, 1996). It should be stressed again that the primary purpose of these systems is to gather data, organize it and produce analytical views that management can use in fuelling their decisional justifications. The main idea of a DSS being installed is that it can get its data from a variety of sources and still produce one summary useful for the decision. This means that managers no longer need to look at three or four different reports and spend hours trying to make sense out of them. A single composite report created by an intelligent system such as a DSS can help save time, productivity and make decision making timely and effective. This is the main aim and function of a DSS: to provide summarized and timely data for analytical purposes grouped into well-defined areas for inference (Marakas, 2002). The reporting format of a DSS is highly flexible. It can be structured or unstructured depending on the scenario, the person being reported to and the situation where the reporting is to be carried out. Although the question about the type of report is a secondary issue, the primary concern is the type of decision that can be taken using a DSS. Here again, no restrictions or barricades on the of decision, which can be anything between structured and unstructured, including a hybrid (semi-structured). DSS possess the capability to analyze data in four distinctive ways (Marakas, 2002): 1. What-If Analysis: Changing a variable and analyzing its effects on other dependent variables in the same time or work domain. 2. Sensitivity Analysis: Keeping all variables constant, except one, and noting down its individualistic effects on the output. 3. Goal-seeking Analysis: Opposite of What-If. It is done by setting the goal and looking at what changes need to be done to reach that goal. 4. Optimization Analysis: Using constraints defined by the management, it seeks for a possible set of solutions or optimizations DSS are intelligent data processors, not data creators. Without input data, DSS cannot perform any inferential tasks. Just like a car is useless without fuel, irregardless of the model and functions, a DSS, however much efficient and strong, is useless without input data and raw facts that are impediment for the decision-making and analysis purposes. CHAPTER 3 A Decision Support System is primarily for the tactical level in an organization, nevertheless it can well adapt to the other levels. It can be even be used in a hybrid of levels gathering data from one level, analyzing it and reporting it to another level. In this way, a DSS can contribute towards organizational objectives very aptly (Thompson, 1999). The fully functional DSSs in The world are a strong reflection of the fact that a DSS can really help a company to overcome its Information Reporting problems and become a leading firm in is business on the basis of the jobs performed by a DSS enabling workforce efficiency and effectiveness. The DSS works on the principle of arranging data so that inferences can be made as quickly and as easily as possible. Imagine the future corporate world without a DSS. A weary manager leading a bored, monotonous workforce that is dilapidated with the over burdening of compiling data from every nook and corner and making it meaningful and presentable to their bosses (Thompson, 1999). A DSS allows for the generation of routine reports as easy as it is to click on the Print button. The fact that a DSS allows for repeatable, routine and scheduled reports to be produced without the interference of any person makes its usage and relevance even more pronounced. The application of a DSS transforms greatly the way in which an organization works to achieve its organizational goals. Take the example of 4 workers divided in a hierarchical manner striving for the collection of data and organizing it. After this organizing, this data is given to another 2 workers who then process it and present it to the management. With a DSS in place, the job definitions change: only 1 worker from the upper hierarchy is required to monitor formats and give commands timely. Another worker is needed to key in the data, as it is automatically organized. This reduces the job for 3 lower workers and 1 upper worker. You might say, bad. But looking on the brighter side, these 4 employees’ forces and skills can be polished on another branch: say, the marketing department (Marakas, 2002). Now that brings the organization more closely and quicker to fulfilling its short-term goals, which are just a break-down of the overall long-term goals. DSS allow for Business Process Re-engineering. This means that a DSS can be implemented for a key strategy or technical change in the methodologies and the system specifications f the current work methods and practices. This may sound too subjective to be understood in a practical corporate environment. How do several firms manage a turnaround in their sales and efficiency by keeping the same bunch of employees, the same size of plants, marketing strategies and same old buyers? The answer is Business Process Re-engineering (Marakas, 1998). This means changing the old ways or trading them with new ones that are according to the practices required by the DSS implementation. A classic example is the retailer who did not have any inventory control and alarm system and was often low in certain inventory when it was high and demand and had excess of another when its season was off. After the implementation of a DSS, it was able to act an alarm system that gave beeps when certain inventory levels receded; no this conception is false. It was actually a reporting system that could use sales data and produce individualistic item reports. It simply meant that the retailer could now generate reports on the sales of his individual items on his list and compare it with what he expected each item to spend in his store. After looking at a couple or more reports, he can, ideally, identify the general time each type of grocery took to be sold and the time periods when certain inventory was needed and what was the best time to hold up more inventories considering the future aspects. One might argue as to the effectiveness of such a DSS as described above and point out the costs involved in setting up a DSS. But, believe me, in the long run, there will be a point where the decisions made using the information churned out by the DSS will result in significant cost savings and greater sales for the retailer since the retailer will now be having a fairer idea of each type of inventory and the time it took for it to be converted into sales. It is worth noting, that there was no change of inventory, marketing, employees or shop; only the DSS was implemented and BPR was carried out that lead to the retailer creeping more steadily towards his personal goals. Competition is the key for survival in today’s world, be it any industry. Globalization has meted out a strong barrier to entry for smaller firms into the global market and the existing big fishes are also finding it hard to compete with global giants. Here, comes the need and advantage of a DSS. A DSS makes it possible for an organization to keep its maintain its grip on the market as well as blesses new entrants with the opportunity to seize the market share from big giants on the basis of the reporting system they use. What do all companies have in common? Reporting that leads to Decision making. And what is the basic job of a DSS? Information organization and Reporting. So why not combine something needy with something that can fulfill the formers needs. Common sense and simple logic make it more than evident that a DSS is best suited for the achieving of organizational goals and objectives. This logic can be derived from the fact that quicker and more effective decisions fuelled by organized information will lead to strategic edges in competition and success (Marakas, 2002). History has borne testimony to the fact that often big giants in the market look to buying up small ventures in the market owing to them posing serious threats to their future goals and survival. Now the question that lies here is: what makes these small ventures so important in the eyes of big companies in that they regard them as threats, given the difference in their sizes and market shares? It must be the technology: specifically DSS and Expert Systems. While discussing the latter is beyond the scope and requirement of this paper, I would like to reinstate the use of DSS in the meeting of organizational goals and objectives. As a final bow, I would like to re-emphasize the fact that the tried-and-tested formula of the implementation of a DSS to enhance efficiency and effectiveness in company goal achieving capabilities has never been proved wrong in any major investment and changeover. Thus, we can safely assert that a DSS is essentially a valuable contributor and facilitator towards the achievement of organizational goals and objectives in a timely and successful manner (Marakas, 1998). CHAPTER 4 In compendium, I would like to end my discussion with the futuristic advantages as well as the disadvantages a DSS holds. Generally speaking, there are more visible advantages of a DSS than disadvantages owing to their easy-to-use nature and the variety of jobs they can perform. The most important advantage of a DSS is the use of data and producing a timely report that can be used to justify and influence organizational decisions. On a futuristic outlook, time will become more and more scarcer and decisions will have to me made more quickly if they are to have any impact. If managers are left doodling over 300 files to understand a trend and then make a decision then it is highly likely that at the end of the day, the company will be losing out to businesses using DSS’s (Holsapple and Whinston, 1996). This is due to the high level of automatic dissemination and organization of data done by a DSS that enables it to cater to the format and the needs of specific informational roles and managerial positions. The flexibility of a DSS will allow its extensive future use for organizational goals. A DSS does not mean a system that only produces analytical reports and stops. There is more to it. The DSS also records the decisions made and stores results of decisions and retrieves such data for future decision making purposes. An example would be when a manager was in a problem to decide on price cuts in order to remain competitive. The manager did not cut the price, and soon enough, there was a 65% sales cut. Instantly, the management decided to cut the prices but were still only able to recover just 60% of the lost sales. Slowly, they progressed, lucky enough not to go out of business. In the future, when a similar situation persists, the DSS will show the past decision along with the outcome. It is important to note here also, that in line with our past definitions of a DSS being a decision facilitator, not a decision maker, the DSS will just provide the course of action taken previously, and will not propose the manager to take the step of cutting prices as it had lead to a worsening period for the company. The decision still lies at the hands of the manager who can again decide to retain prices owing to a difference of situation or other factors. The variety of data that a DSS can handle is commendable (Holsapple and Whinston, 1996). It can be configured to use several data sources easing down managerial work. Time, efficiency and ease of work all lead directly to a guarantee of achieving organizational goals, since if decisions are made on time, with good hindsight and information, they are bound to be successful and contribute towards standards set to be met by the organization. Futuristic advantages of a DSS include giving one company a strategic edge over another through the effective use of a DSS which enables them to gather information from wide sources and work with them quickly in order to produce meaningful results that can be used to trigger well-timed decisions. DSS makes Business Process Re-engineering (BPR) a possibility, a process where the core activities and components of an organizational work flow or department are re-designed to improve their effectiveness towards organizational goal achieving. A possible disadvantage of a DSS might be their stagnancy with newer data types and the need to define reporting formats and the types of reports it can produce. A coffee maker knows how to make coffee. Similarly, a DSS cannot be programmed to work with data types as they come. It has to be informed, which is done in the designing phase, and once its made, there is no automatic way in which it can align itself to a data type without it having been configured earlier. So there is the need for redefinitions. On the positive outlook, a DSS is a well-oiled machine that is a very important part in running the organizational motors nonchalantly and stopping errors and inefficiency becoming an impediment to organizational goals and objectives (Thompson, 1999). The future is not happening without the use of a DSS, for sure. It is imperative that DSS be taken on into the future since it is an efficient part required to keep the wheels of efficiency and effective time management ticking on. REFERENCE: 1. Brooks Jr. , F. P. (1987). No silver bullet: essence and accidents of software engineering, IEEE Computer, 20(4), pp.10-19. 2. Marakas, George M. (2002). Decision Support Systems(2nd Edition) 3. Marakas, George M. (1998). Decision Support Systems in the 21st Century. 4. Holsapple, Clyde W. and Whinston, Andrew B. (1996). Decision Support Systems: A Knowledge Based Approach. 5. Thompson, J. Barrie (1999). Here, There and Everywhere: The Future of Software Engineering Education. Twenty-Third Annual International Computer Software and Applications Conference, from http://csdl2. computer. org/persagen/DLAbsToc. jsp? resourcePath=/dl/proceedings/&toc=comp/proceedings/compsac/1999/0368/00/0368toc. xml&DOI=10. 1109/CMPSAC. 1999. 812708